Difference between revisions of "Dihedral group"
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==Definition== | ==Definition== | ||
− | The '''dihedral group''' | + | The '''dihedral group''' of degree <math>n</math> and order <math>2n</math>, denoted sometimes as sometimes as <math>D_{2n}</math> ('''this wiki uses <math>D_{2n}</math>'''), sometimes as <math>D_n</math>, and sometimes as <math>\operatorname{Dih}_n</math>, is defined in the following equivalent ways: |
− | * It has the [[presentation]]: | + | * It has the [[presentation]] (here, <math>e</math> denotes the identity element): |
− | <math>\langle x,a | + | <math>\langle x,a \mid a^n = x^2 = e, xax^{-1} = a^{-1} \rangle</math> |
* (For <math>n \ge 3</math>): It is the group of symmetries of a regular <math>n</math>-gon in the plane, viz., the plane isometries that preserves the set of points of the regular <math>n</math>-gon. | * (For <math>n \ge 3</math>): It is the group of symmetries of a regular <math>n</math>-gon in the plane, viz., the plane isometries that preserves the set of points of the regular <math>n</math>-gon. | ||
− | The dihedral groups arise as a special case of a family of groups called [[von Dyck group]]s. | + | The dihedral groups arise as a special case of a family of groups called [[von Dyck group]]s. They also arise as a special case of a family of groups called [[Coxeter group]]s. |
Note that for <math>n = 1</math> and <math>n = 2</math>, the geometric description of the dihedral group does not make sense. In these cases, we use the algebraic description. | Note that for <math>n = 1</math> and <math>n = 2</math>, the geometric description of the dihedral group does not make sense. In these cases, we use the algebraic description. | ||
− | = | + | The [[infinite dihedral group]], which is the <math>n = \infty</math> case of the dihedral group and is denoted <math>D_\infty</math> and is defined as: |
− | == | + | <math>\langle x,a \mid x^2 = e, xax^{-1} = a^{-1} \rangle</math>. |
− | + | ==Related notions== | |
− | + | ===Generalizations=== | |
− | |||
− | + | * [[Generalized dihedral group]]: This is a semidirect product of an abelian group by a cyclic group of order two acting via the inverse map. | |
+ | * [[q-hedral group]] | ||
+ | * [[Coxeter group]]: Dihedral groups are Coxeter groups with two generators. | ||
− | + | ==Particular cases== | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | ===For small values=== | |
− | + | Note that all dihedral groups are [[metacyclic group|metacyclic]] and hence supersolvable. A dihedral group is nilpotent if and only if it is of order <math>2^k</math> for some <math>k</math>. It is abelian only if it has order <math>2</math> or <math>4</math>. | |
− | |||
− | == | + | {| class="sortable" border="1" |
+ | ! Order of group !! Degree (size of regular polygon it acts on) !! Common name for the group !! Comment | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 2 || 1 || [[Cyclic group:Z2]] || Not usually considered a dihedral group. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 4 || 2 || [[Klein four-group]] || [[elementary abelian group]] that is not [[cyclic group|cyclic]] | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 6 || 3 || [[symmetric group:S3]] || [[metacyclic group|metacyclic]], hence [[supersolvable group|supersolvable]] but not [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 8 || 4 || [[dihedral group:D8]] || [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] but not [[abelian group|abelian]] | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 10 || 5 || [[dihedral group:D10]] || [[metacyclic group|metacyclic]], hence [[supersolvable group|supersolvable]] but not [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |12 || 6 || [[dihedral group:D12]] || direct product of the dihedral group of order six and the cyclic group of order two. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | 16 || 8 || [[dihedral group:D16]] || [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] but not [[abelian group|abelian]] | ||
+ | |} | ||
− | + | ==Arithmetic functions== | |
− | + | <math>n</math> here denotes the ''degree'', or half the order, of the dihedral group, which we denote as <math>D_{2n}</math>. | |
− | + | ||
+ | {| class="sortable" border="1" | ||
+ | ! Function !! Value !! Explanation | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[Order of a group|order]] || <math>2n</math> || Cyclic subgroup of order <math>n</math>, quotient of order <math>2</math>. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[Exponent of a group|exponent]] || <math>\operatorname{lcm}(n,2)</math> || Exponent of cyclic subgroup is <math>n</math>, elements outside have order <math>2</math>. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[derived length]] || <math>2</math> for <math>n \ge 3</math>, <math>1</math> for <math>n = 1,2</math> || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[nilpotency class]] || <math>k</math> when <math>n = 2^k</math>, none otherwise || Nilpotent only if <math>n</math> is a power of <math>2</math>. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[max-length of a group|max-length]] || 1 + sum of exponents of prime divisors of <math>n</math> || The dihedral groups are solvable. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[composition length]] || 1 + sum of exponents of prime divisors of <math>n</math> || The dihedral groups are solvable. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[number of subgroups]] || <math>\sigma(n) + d(n)</math> || <math>\sigma(n)</math> is the [[number:divisor sum function|divisor sum function]] and <math>d(n)</math> is the [[number:divisor count function|divisor count function]]. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[number of conjugacy classes]] || <math>(n+3)/2</math> if <math>n</math> is odd, <math>(n+6)/2</math> if <math>n</math> is even. || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | | [[number of conjugacy classes of subgroups]] || <math>3d(n) - d(m)</math> where <math>m</math> is the largest odd divisor of <math>n</math> || <math>d(n)</math> subgroups inside the cyclic part. For odd divisors, one external conjugacy class of subgroups per divisor; for even divisors, one external conjugacy class per divisor. | ||
+ | |} | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==Group properties== | ||
+ | |||
+ | {| class="sortable" border="1" | ||
+ | !Property !! Satisfied? !! Explanation | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Abelian group]] || no for <math>n \ge 3</math> || For <math>n \ge 3</math>, the elements <math>a,x</math> do not commute. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Nilpotent group]] || yes for <math>n</math> a power of <math>2</math>, no otherwise || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Metacyclic group]] || yes || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Supersolvable group]] || yes || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Solvable group]] || yes || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[T-group]] || yes for <math>n</math> odd or twice an odd number, no for <math>n</math> a multiple of <math>4</math> || | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Rational group]] || yes for <math>n \le 4</math> and <math>n = 6</math>, no for <math>n = 5</math>, <math>n \ge 7</math> || The field generated by character values is <math>\mathbb{Q}(\cos(2\pi / n))</math>. The number <math>\cos(2\pi/n)</math> is rational if and only if <math>n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6</math>. This can be proved by showing that <math>2\cos(2\pi/n)</math> is an algebraic integer (it is the root of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients) and therefore must be in <math>\{ -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 \}</math>, which translates to these five values of <math>n</math>. For more information, see [[linear representation theory of dihedral groups]]. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Rational-representation group]] || yes for <math>n \le 4</math> and <math>n = 6</math>, no for <math>n = 5</math>, <math>n \ge 7</math> || The unique minimal splitting field is <math>\mathbb{Q}(\cos(2\pi / n))</math>. The number <math>\cos(2\pi/n)</math> is rational if and only if <math>n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6</math>. This can be proved by showing that <math>2\cos(2\pi/n)</math> is an algebraic integer (it is the root of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients) and therefore must be in <math>\{ -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 \}</math>, which translates to these five values of <math>n</math>. For more information, see [[linear representation theory of dihedral groups]]. | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | |[[Ambivalent group]] || yes || Elements in the cyclic subgroup are conjugate via <math>x</math>, elements outside have order two. | ||
+ | |} | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==Elements== | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{further|[[element structure of dihedral groups]]}} | ||
+ | ===Summary=== | ||
+ | {{#lst:element structure of dihedral groups|summary}} | ||
+ | ===Conjugacy class structure=== | ||
+ | {{#lst:element structure of dihedral groups|conjugacy class structure}} | ||
==Subgroups== | ==Subgroups== | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{further|[[Subgroup structure of dihedral groups]]}} | ||
There are two kinds of subgroups: | There are two kinds of subgroups: | ||
− | * Subgroups of the form <math>\langle a^d \rangle</math>, where <math>d|n</math>. The number of such subgroups equals the number of positive divisors of <math>n</math>, sometimes denoted <math>\tau(n)</math>. The subgroup generated by <math>a^d</math> is a [[cyclic group]] of order <math>n/d</math>. | + | * Subgroups of the form <math>\langle a^d \rangle</math>, where <math>d|n</math>. The number of such subgroups equals the [[number:divisor count function|number of positive divisors]] of <math>n</math>, sometimes denoted <math>\tau(n)</math>. The subgroup generated by <math>a^d</math> is a [[cyclic group]] of order <math>n/d</math>. |
− | * Subgroups of the form <math>\langle a^d, a^r x \rangle</math>, where <math>d|n</math> and <math>0 \le r < d</math>. The number of such subgroups equals the sum of all positive divisors of <math>n</math>, sometimes denoted <math>\sigma(n)</math>. The subgroup of the above form is a [[dihedral group]] of order <math>2n/d</math>. | + | * Subgroups of the form <math>\langle a^d, a^r x \rangle</math>, where <math>d|n</math> and <math>0 \le r < d</math>. The number of such subgroups equals the [[number:divisor sum function|sum of all positive divisors]] of <math>n</math>, sometimes denoted <math>\sigma(n)</math>. The subgroup of the above form is a [[dihedral group]] of order <math>2n/d</math>. |
In particular, all subgroups of the dihedral group are either cyclic or dihedral. | In particular, all subgroups of the dihedral group are either cyclic or dihedral. | ||
Also note that the dihedral group has subgroups of all orders dividing its order. This is true more generally for all [[finite supersolvable group]]s. {{further|[[Finite supersolvable implies subgroups of all orders dividing the group order]]}} | Also note that the dihedral group has subgroups of all orders dividing its order. This is true more generally for all [[finite supersolvable group]]s. {{further|[[Finite supersolvable implies subgroups of all orders dividing the group order]]}} | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==Linear representation theory== | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{further|[[linear representation theory of dihedral groups]]}} | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{#lst:linear representation theory of dihedral groups|summary}} | ||
==Supergroups== | ==Supergroups== | ||
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Dicyclic groups whose order is a power of <math>2</math> are termed [[generalized quaternion group]]s. | Dicyclic groups whose order is a power of <math>2</math> are termed [[generalized quaternion group]]s. | ||
− | == | + | ==Internal links== |
− | + | * [[Element structure of dihedral groups]] | |
+ | * [[Subgroup structure of dihedral groups]] | ||
+ | * [[Linear representation theory of dihedral groups]] | ||
+ | * [[Group cohomology of dihedral groups]] | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
===Textbook references=== | ===Textbook references=== |
Latest revision as of 02:22, 6 July 2019
WARNING: POTENTIAL TERMINOLOGICAL CONFUSION: Please don't confuse this with dicyclic group (also called binary dihedral group)
This article defines a group property: a property that can be evaluated to true/false for any given group, invariant under isomorphism
View a complete list of group properties
VIEW RELATED: Group property implications | Group property non-implications |Group metaproperty satisfactions | Group metaproperty dissatisfactions | Group property satisfactions | Group property dissatisfactions
This is a family of groups parametrized by the natural numbers, viz, for each natural number, there is a unique group (upto isomorphism) in the family corresponding to the natural number. The natural number is termed the parameter for the group family
Contents
Definition
The dihedral group of degree and order
, denoted sometimes as sometimes as
(this wiki uses
), sometimes as
, and sometimes as
, is defined in the following equivalent ways:
- It has the presentation (here,
denotes the identity element):
- (For
): It is the group of symmetries of a regular
-gon in the plane, viz., the plane isometries that preserves the set of points of the regular
-gon.
The dihedral groups arise as a special case of a family of groups called von Dyck groups. They also arise as a special case of a family of groups called Coxeter groups.
Note that for and
, the geometric description of the dihedral group does not make sense. In these cases, we use the algebraic description.
The infinite dihedral group, which is the case of the dihedral group and is denoted
and is defined as:
.
Related notions
Generalizations
- Generalized dihedral group: This is a semidirect product of an abelian group by a cyclic group of order two acting via the inverse map.
- q-hedral group
- Coxeter group: Dihedral groups are Coxeter groups with two generators.
Particular cases
For small values
Note that all dihedral groups are metacyclic and hence supersolvable. A dihedral group is nilpotent if and only if it is of order for some
. It is abelian only if it has order
or
.
Order of group | Degree (size of regular polygon it acts on) | Common name for the group | Comment |
---|---|---|---|
2 | 1 | Cyclic group:Z2 | Not usually considered a dihedral group. |
4 | 2 | Klein four-group | elementary abelian group that is not cyclic |
6 | 3 | symmetric group:S3 | metacyclic, hence supersolvable but not nilpotent |
8 | 4 | dihedral group:D8 | nilpotent but not abelian |
10 | 5 | dihedral group:D10 | metacyclic, hence supersolvable but not nilpotent |
12 | 6 | dihedral group:D12 | direct product of the dihedral group of order six and the cyclic group of order two. |
16 | 8 | dihedral group:D16 | nilpotent but not abelian |
Arithmetic functions
here denotes the degree, or half the order, of the dihedral group, which we denote as
.
Function | Value | Explanation |
---|---|---|
order | ![]() |
Cyclic subgroup of order ![]() ![]() |
exponent | ![]() |
Exponent of cyclic subgroup is ![]() ![]() |
derived length | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
|
nilpotency class | ![]() ![]() |
Nilpotent only if ![]() ![]() |
max-length | 1 + sum of exponents of prime divisors of ![]() |
The dihedral groups are solvable. |
composition length | 1 + sum of exponents of prime divisors of ![]() |
The dihedral groups are solvable. |
number of subgroups | ![]() |
![]() ![]() |
number of conjugacy classes | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
|
number of conjugacy classes of subgroups | ![]() ![]() ![]() |
![]() |
Group properties
Property | Satisfied? | Explanation |
---|---|---|
Abelian group | no for ![]() |
For ![]() ![]() |
Nilpotent group | yes for ![]() ![]() |
|
Metacyclic group | yes | |
Supersolvable group | yes | |
Solvable group | yes | |
T-group | yes for ![]() ![]() ![]() |
|
Rational group | yes for ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
The field generated by character values is ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Rational-representation group | yes for ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
The unique minimal splitting field is ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Ambivalent group | yes | Elements in the cyclic subgroup are conjugate via ![]() |
Elements
Further information: element structure of dihedral groups
Summary
Item | Value |
---|---|
order | ![]() |
conjugacy class sizes | Case ![]() ![]() ![]() Case ![]() ![]() ![]() |
number of conjugacy classes | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
number of orbits under automorphism group | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
order statistics | Case ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Conjugacy class structure
Nature of conjugacy class | Size of each conjugacy class | Number of such conjugacy classes | Total number of elements |
---|---|---|---|
Identity element | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Non-identity elements in cyclic subgroup ![]() |
2 | ![]() |
![]() |
Elements outside the cyclic subgroup ![]() |
![]() |
1 | ![]() |
Total | -- | ![]() |
![]() |
Subgroups
Further information: Subgroup structure of dihedral groups
There are two kinds of subgroups:
- Subgroups of the form
, where
. The number of such subgroups equals the number of positive divisors of
, sometimes denoted
. The subgroup generated by
is a cyclic group of order
.
- Subgroups of the form
, where
and
. The number of such subgroups equals the sum of all positive divisors of
, sometimes denoted
. The subgroup of the above form is a dihedral group of order
.
In particular, all subgroups of the dihedral group are either cyclic or dihedral.
Also note that the dihedral group has subgroups of all orders dividing its order. This is true more generally for all finite supersolvable groups. Further information: Finite supersolvable implies subgroups of all orders dividing the group order
Linear representation theory
Further information: linear representation theory of dihedral groups
Item | Value |
---|---|
degrees of irreducible representations over a splitting field | Case ![]() ![]() Case ![]() ![]() maximum: 2 (if ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Schur index values of irreducible representations over a splitting field | 1 (all of them) |
condition for a field to be a splitting field | First, the field should have characteristic not equal to 2 or any prime divisor of ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
smallest ring of realization (characteristic zero) | ![]() |
smallest field of realization (characteristic zero) | ![]() ![]() ![]() |
smallest size splitting field | unclear. Definitely, for a field of odd size ![]() ![]() ![]() |
degrees of irreducible representations over rational numbers | PLACEHOLDER FOR INFORMATION TO BE FILLED IN: [SHOW MORE] |
Supergroups
Groups having the dihedral group as quotient
The dicyclic group, also called the binary dihedral group, of order , has the dihedral group of order
as a quotient -- in fact the quotient by its center, which is a cyclic subgroup of order two. the presentation for the dicyclic group is given by:
.
Dicyclic groups whose order is a power of are termed generalized quaternion groups.
Internal links
- Element structure of dihedral groups
- Subgroup structure of dihedral groups
- Linear representation theory of dihedral groups
- Group cohomology of dihedral groups
References
Textbook references
- Abstract Algebra by David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, 10-digit ISBN 0471433349, 13-digit ISBN 978-0471433347More info, Page 23-27, Section 1.2 Dihedral Groups (the entire section discusses dihedral groups from a number of perspectives)
- Groups and representations by Jonathan Lazare Alperin and Rowen B. Bell, ISBN 0387945261, More info, Page 24 (definition introduced in paragraph)
- Algebra by Serge Lang, ISBN 038795385X, More info, Page 78, Exercise 34 (a) (definition introduced in exercise)
- Topics in Algebra by I. N. Herstein, More info, Page 54, Problem 17
- A Course in the Theory of Groups by Derek J. S. Robinson, ISBN 0387944613, More info, Page 6 (definition introduced informally, in paragraph, using the geometric perspective)
- An Introduction to Abstract Algebra by Derek J. S. Robinson, ISBN 3110175444, More info, Page 42, under The symmetry group of the regular n-gon
- Algebra (Graduate Texts in Mathematics) by Thomas W. Hungerford, ISBN 0387905189, More info, Page 50 (definition introduced as a subgroup of the symmetric group)